Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine

Konur, O., (Ed.), 2020. Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2018-0-02150-7

Description

Handbook of Algal Science, Microbiology, Technology and Medicine provides a concise introduction to the science, biology, technology and medical use of algae that is structured on the major research fronts of the last four decades, such as algal structures and properties, algal biomedicine, algal genomics, algal toxicology, and algal bioremediation, algal photosystems, algal ecology, algal bioenergy and biofuels. It also covers algal production for biomedicine, algal biomaterials, and algal medicinal foods within these primary sections. All chapters are authored by the leading researchers in their respective research fields.

Our society currently faces insurmountable challenges in the areas of biomedicine and energy in the face of increasing global population and diminishing natural resources as well as the growing environmental and economic concerns, such as global warming, greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. Algae offer a way to deal with these challenges and concerns for both sustainable and environment friendly bioenergy production and in biomedicine through the development of crucial biotechnology.

Key Features

Provides an essential interdisciplinary introduction and handbook for all the stakeholders engaged in science, technology and medicine of algae

Covers the major research streams of the last four decades, ranging from algal structures, to algal biomedicine and algal bioremediation

Fills a significant market opening for an interdisciplinary handbook on algal science, technology and medicine

Preface

Konur, O., 2020. Preface. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, XXIII-XXIX. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.09987-3

Our society currently faces insurmountable challenges in the areas of energy (Abas et al., 2015; Hook and Tang, 2013; Hubbert, 1949) and healthcare (Anderson et al., 2003; Daniels, 2001; Leape et al., 2009) in the face of increasing global population (Keilman, 1998; Lutz and Samir, 2010; Raftery et al., 2012) and diminishing natural resources (Chisti, 2007, Chisti, 2008) as well as the growing environmental and ecological concerns such as global warming (Dai, 2011; Root et al., 2003; Vitousek, 1994) greenhouse gas emissions (Johnson et al., 2007; Lashof and Ahuja, 1990; Riahi et al., 2011), and climate change (Karl and Trenberth, 2003; Oreskes, 2004; Thomas et al., 2004).

Algae offer a way to deal these challenges and concerns for both sustainable and environment friendly bioenergy production (Chisti, 2007, Chisti, 2008; Li et al., 2008) and for healthcare (Lee and Mooney, 2012; Rowley et al., 1999; Tonnesen and Karlsen, 2002) through the development of crucial biotechnology.

This book provides a concise introduction to the science, technology, and medicine of algae, structured based on the major research fronts of the last five decades such as algal structures and properties, algal genomics, algal photosystems and photosynthesis, algal ecology, algal bioenergy and biofuels, algal biomedicine, algal foods, algal toxicology, and algal bioremediation. All these chapters were authored by the leading researchers in their respective research fields.

This book fills a significant market opening for the handbook of the science, technology, and medicine of the algae, covering all types of algae such as macroalgae, microalgae, diatoms, coccolithophores, cyanobacteria, and dinoflagellates as well as their derivatives such as alginates, carrageenans, fucoidans, agars, agaroses, channelrhodopsins, microcystins, nodularins, and cyanovirins.

This book would be a key reference in one volume for all the stakeholders such as policy makers, industrial leaders, professionals, academicians, and graduate students engaged in these major research streams of algae.

It is a must interdisciplinary introduction and handbook for all the stakeholders engaged in science, technology, and medicine of algae in one volume. It covers the major research streams of the last five decades ranging from algal structures to algal bioremediation and algal biomedicine in one volume. It provides easy access to the leading scientists in their respective fields in one volume.

The primary audience for this book would be all the stakeholders such as policy makers, industrial leaders, academicians, professionals, and graduate students engaged in these major research streams of algae covering the academic disciplines of ‘Marine Freshwater Biology’, ‘Plant Sciences’, ‘Biotechnology Applied Microbiology’, ‘Biochemistry Molecular Biology’, ‘Environmental Sciences’, ‘Microbiology’, ‘Ecology’, ‘Oceanography’, ‘Food Science Technology’, ‘Energy Fuels’, ‘Pharmacology Pharmacy’, ‘Toxicology’, ‘Chemistry Applied’, ‘Chemistry Physical’, ‘Cell Biology’, ‘Biophysics’, ‘Chemistry Multidisciplinary’, ‘Engineering Chemical’, ‘Multidisciplinary Sciences’, ‘Polymer Science’, ‘Engineering Environmental’, ‘Water Resources’, ‘Agricultural Engineering’, ‘Chemistry Organic’, ‘Fisheries’, ‘Chemistry Analytical’, ‘Biochemical Research Methods’, ‘Chemistry Medicinal’, ‘Genetics Heredity’, ‘Geosciences Multidisciplinary’, ‘Biology’, ‘Materials Science Multidisciplinary’, ‘Materials Science Biomaterials’, ‘Engineering Biomedical’, ‘Evolutionary Biology’, ‘Immunology’, ‘Nutrition Dietetics’, ‘Biodiversity Conservation’, ‘Paleontology’, ‘Nanoscience Nanotechnology’, ‘Physics Applied’, ‘Zoology’, ‘Optics’, ‘Medicine Research Experimental’, ‘Agriculture Multidisciplinary’, ‘Geography Physical’, ‘Green Sustainable Science Technology’, ‘Physiology’, ‘Electrochemistry’, ‘Oncology’, ‘Neurosciences’, ‘Physics Multidisciplinary’, ‘Agronomy’, ‘Soil Science’, ‘Physics Condensed Matter’, ‘Agriculture Dairy Animal Science’, ‘Public Environmental Occupational Health’, ‘Infectious Diseases’, ‘Endocrinology Metabolism’, ‘Virology’, ‘Surgery’, ‘Cell Tissue Engineering’, ‘Integrative Complementary Medicine’, ‘Pathology’, ‘Hematology’, ‘Medical Laboratory Technology’, ‘Dentistry Oral Surgery Medicine’, ‘Transplantation’, ‘Medicine General Internal’, and ‘Clinical Neurology’ among others.

These stakeholders would form an informed opinion on the algae with an efficient access to all the major research themes of the last five decades authored by the leading scientists for each theme in one volume.

There are 42 chapter titles under 10 parts: Introduction, algal structures, algal genomics, algal photosystems and photosynthesis, algal ecology, algal bioenergy and biofuels, algal biomedicine, algal foods, algal toxicology, and algal biomedicine.

The first section of the handbook provides an introduction to algal science, technology, and medicine. Konur (2020a) carries out a scientometric study of the research on the algal science, technology, and medicine based on the whole population of the research in this field while Konur (2020b) focuses on the pioneering research in the algal science, technology, and medicine. These studies at the macro level lay out the context for the handbook covering all major research fronts from toxicology to bioenergy and biofuels.

The second section of the handbook provides the information on the structure and properties of the algae as key background materials on algae. Konur (2020c) carries out a scientometric study of the research on the algal structures. Barsanti and Gualtieri (2020) presents a case study of the macroalgal structures focusing on the anatomy of Euglena gracilis. Mathieson and Dawes (2020a) present a study on the biology and ecology of Northwest Atlantic seaweeds while Mathieson and Dawes (2020b) study autecology of Northwest Atlantic fucoid algae. These studies provide background information on the structure and properties of algae relevant for the following chapters in the handbook. These studies show that ‘phylogeny’ and ‘taxonomy’ of the algae as well as the ‘cell biology’ and ‘physiology’ of algae have been primary prolific research fronts (Falkowski et al., 2004; Littler and Littler, 1980; Menden-Deuer and Lessard, 2000).

The third section of the handbook deals with the genomics of algae. Konur (2020d) presents a scientometric study of the research on the algal genomics. Arora et al. (2020) study the metabolic engineering of cyanobacteria for production of platform chemicals through a synthetic biology approach while Moreira et al. (2020) provide a study on the genomics perspectives on cyanobacteria research. O’Neill (2020) provides a case study of the macroalgal genomics on Euglena while Deka et al. (2020) explore omics approaches in diatoms and haptophytes for understanding the essence of stress phenomena in these algae. These studies show that ‘cyanobacterial genomics’ and ‘microalgal genomic studies’ have been the most prolific research fronts (Derelle et al., 2016; Ishiura et al., 1998; Kaneko et al., 2001).

The fourth section of the handbook deals with algal photosystems and photosynthesis. Konur (2020e) provides a scientometric study of the research on the algal photosystems and photosynthesis. Goss et al. (2020) presents a study of the photosynthesis in diatoms while Konur (2020f) provides a study of the pioneering research on the cyanobacterial photosystems and photosynthesis. Finally, Vaz et al. (2020) study carbon and nitrogen metabolism in cyanobacteria focusing on the basic traits, regulation and biotechnological applications. These studies show that the most-prolific research fronts have been ‘cyanobacterial photosynthesis’ and ‘cyanobacterial photosystems’ (Ferreira et al., 2004; Guskov et al., 2009; Jordan et al., 2001).

The fifth section of the handbook deals with the interaction of the algae with the ecology and environment. Konur (2020g) provides a scientometric study of the research on the algal ecology while Boudouresque et al. (2020) study the macroalgae as a tool for coastal management in the Mediterranean Sea. Next, Dalu et al. (2020) presents a study linking phytoplankton community structure to aquatic ecosystem functioning while Znad (2020) focuses on the microalgae culture technology for carbon dioxide biomitigation. These studies show that the most-prolific research fronts have been ‘ecology of phytoplankton’, ‘ecology of cyanobacteria’, ‘ecology of algae’, and ‘ecology of macroalgae’ (Boyd et al., 2000; Coale et al., 1996; Hecky and Kilham, 1988).

The sixth section deals with algal biofuels and bioenergy. Konur (2020h) provides a scientometric analysis of the research on the algal bioenergy and biofuels. While Markou (2020) provides an overview of microalgal cultivation, biomass processing and application. Makareviciene and Sendzikiene (2020) present a study on the microalgal biodiesel production, Faraloni and Torzillo (2020) provides a study on the microalgal hydrogen production. Finally, Saba and Christy (2020) presents as study of the bioelectricity generation in algal microbial fuel cells while Konur (2020i) provides a scientometric study of the research on the bioethanol production from green macroalgae. These studies show that ‘microalgal bioenergy and biofuels’ has been the most prolific research front (Chisti, 2007, Chisti, 2008; Brennan and Owende, 2010).

The seventh section of the handbook deals with the applications of algae in healthcare. Konur (2020j) provides a scientometric study of the research on the algal biomedicine while Costa et al. (2020) focuses on the microalgal biotechnology applied in biomedicine. Next, Nowruzi et al. (2020) provide a study on the applications of cyanobacteria in biomedicine. While Qin (2020) focuses on the health benefits of bioactive seaweed substances. Finally, Konur (2020k) presents a study on the pioneering research on the wound care by alginates. These studies show that the field of ‘alginates’ has been the most prolific research front (Lee and Mooney, 2012; Rowley et al., 1999; Tonnesen and Karlsen, 2002).

The eight section of the handbook focuses on the algal foods. Konur (2020l) provides a scientometric study of the research on the algal foods while Colla et al. (2020) focuses on the use of microalgae as a food source. These studies show that ‘macroalgal foods’ and ‘cyanobacterial foods’ have been the most prolific research fronts (Ciferri, 1983; Duan et al., 2006; Fleurence, 1999).

The ninth section of the handbook deals with toxicity of algae to both the environment and humans as well as harmful algal blooms. Konur (2020m) provides a scientometric study of the research on the algal toxicology, while Matsuyama and Oda (2020) present a study on the toxic effects of harmful algal blooms on finfish and shellfish. Next, Souza and Metcalf (2020) study the cyanobacterial toxins and their effects on human and animal health while Noguchi et al. (2020) present a study on the different intoxication mechanism between paralytic shellfish toxin (PST)- and/or tetrodotoxin-contaminated xanthid crabs and PST-contaminated edible shore crabs in Japan and their food poisonings. Finally, Esterhuizen-Londt and Pflugmacher (2020) present a study on the microcystins as environmental and human health hazards. These studies show that ‘algal toxins’ and ‘harmful algal blooms’ have been the most-prolific research fronts (Anderson et al., 2002; Carmichael, 1994; Codd et al., 2005).

The last section of the handbook deals with the removal of heavy metals, dyes, and other toxic materials available in the environment such as wastewaters by algae. This section can also be considered as a special sub-set of algal ecology. Konur (2020n) provides a scientometric study of the research on the algal bioremediation while Cepoi and Zinicovscaia (2020) take Spirulina platensis as a model object for the environment bioremediation studies. Next, Alcantara et al. (2020) explore the potential of microalgae for the bioremediation of agro-industrial wastewaters and Zohoorian et al. (2020) provide a study on the microalgal bioremediation of heavy metals and dyes while Sastre de Vicente et al. (2020) present a study on the biosorption of chemical species by Sargassum algal biomass. These studies show that field of ‘macroalgal heavy metal bioremediation’ has been the most prolific research front while the other key research fronts have been ‘microalgal wastewater bioremediation’, ‘microalgal CO₂ bioremediation’, and ‘microalgal heavy metal bioremediation’ (Aksu, 2002; Cai et al., 2013; Davis et al., 2003).

Part 1. Introduction to the algal science, technology, and medicine

Chapter 1. Konur, O., 2020a. The scientometric analysis of the research on the algal science, technology, and medicine. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 3-18. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00001-2

In recent years, the field of algal science, technology, and medicine has emerged as a strategic research front. For the optimal development of the research and practice in this field with a relatively low funding rate, the stakeholders should have timely and thorough access to the information on the relevant research. Hence, it is timely to carry out the scientometric evaluation of the research in this field to inform the key stakeholders timely and thoroughly about the relevant research. This paper presents the first-ever scientometric study of the research in this field using a wide sample of nearly 150,000 papers and shows that the scientometric analysis as an analytical tool has a great potential to gain valuable insights into the evolution of the research in this field as in the case of new emerging technologies, complementing over 4500 literature reviews.

Algae; Algal science, technology, and medicine; Citation analysis; Cyanobacteria; Diatoms; Dinoflagellates; Microalgae; Macroalgae; Phytoplankton; Scientometrics

Chapter 2. Konur, O., 2020b. 100 citation classics in the algal science, technology, and medicine: a scientometric analysis. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 19-38. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00002-4

In recent years, the field of algal science, technology, and medicine has emerged as a strategic research front. For the optimal development of the research and practice in this field with a relatively low funding rate, the stakeholders should have timely and thorough access to the information on the relevant research. Hence, it is timely to carry out the scientometric evaluation of the research in this field to inform the key stakeholders timely and thoroughly about the relevant research. This paper presents the first-ever scientometric study of 100 citation classics in this field and shows that the scientometric analysis as an analytical tool has a great potential to gain valuable insights into the evolution of the research in this field as in the case of new emerging technologies, complementing over 4500 literature reviews as well as a study on the scientometric analysis of nearly 150,000 papers.

Algae; Algal science, technology, and medicine; Citation classics; Cyanobacteria; Diatoms; Dinoflagellates; Microalgae; Macroalgae; Phytoplankton; Scientometrics

Part 2. Algal structures

Chapter 3. Konur, O., 2020c. The scientometric analysis of the research on the algal structures. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 41-60. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00003-6

In recent years, the field of algal structures, covering cell biology, phylogeny, and physiology of algae, has emerged as a strategic research front. For the optimal development of the research and practice in this field with a relatively low funding rate, the stakeholders should have timely and thorough access to the information on the relevant research. Hence, it is timely to carry out the scientometric evaluation of the research in this field to inform the key stakeholders timely and thoroughly about the relevant research. This book chapter presents the first-ever scientometric study of the research in this field using a wide sample of over 30,500 papers and shows that the scientometric analysis as an analytical tool has a great potential to gain valuable insights into the evolution of the research in this field as in the case of new emerging technologies, complementing nearly 900 literature reviews.

Algae; Algal structures; Cell biology; Cyanobacteria; Diatoms; Microalgae; Macroalgae; Phylogeny; Phytoplankton; Scientometrics

Chapter 4. Barsanti, L., Gualtieri, P., 2020. Anatomy of Euglena gracilis. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 61-70. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00004-8

In this review we will describe the structure of the photosynthetic unicellular alga Euglena gracilis (Euglenozoa, Euglenophyceae). The description of the cell will proceed from the outside structures to the inside components. Details will be given at both microscopic and ultra-microscopic levels citing the most recent data, only for those structures that are not comparable with analogue structures found in most algae. Special attention will be given to the peculiar features of Euglena such as pellicle, photoreceptive system, storage products, and chloroplasts. We will also analyze the swimming behavior of the cell highlighting the role of photoreception in guiding the cell movement. The importance of Euglena as a promising source of immunopotentiating compounds will be discussed.

Euglenozoa; Locomotion; Paramylon; Pellicle; Photoreception; Euglena; Microalgae; Cell biology; Flagellar structures; Mitochondrion

Chapter 5. Mathieson, A.C., Dawes, C.J., 2020a. Biology and ecology of Northwest Atlantic seaweeds. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 71-90. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00005-X

Various types of seaweeds and their habitats are described for the Northwest Atlantic, including lithophytic, psamophytic, epiphytic, endophytic, and parasitic. Excessive epiphytic/epizoic growth may render host seaweeds vulnerable to drag and detachment, while parasitic taxa may cause stress and death of various hosts. Most red algal parasites are adelphoparasites that share a recent common ancestor with free-living host species. The complexity of algal habitats and increased space for associated organisms are due to small-scale variations in shape, size and texture. A description of diverse morphological and anatomical features that are useful for seaweed identifications is presented, as well as taxonomically important life history patterns. Local distributional and longevity patterns for open coastal and estuarine populations in southern Maine and New Hampshire are outlined, plus a strong estuarine reduction pattern. Seaweed community and zonation patterns for the Northwest Atlantic are described for rocky open coastal and estuarine/salt marsh habitats.

Seaweeds; Biology; Morphology; Anatomy; Algal habitats; Zonation; Macroalgae; Biogeography; Introduced species; Global warming

Chapter 6. Mathieson, A.C., Dawes, C.J., 2020b. Autecology of Northwest Atlantic fucoid algae. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 91-102. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00006-1

The autecology of several Northwest Atlantic fucoid algae is described, including their general reproductive and growth patterns, the presence of unique dwarf embedded (limicolous) and brackish waters populations, the impacts of water motion (waves and currents), ice damage, and the functional role of fucoid algae in estuarine habitats.

Seaweeds; Fucoid algae; Autoecology; Water motion; Ice damage; Estuarine

Part 3. Algal genomics

Chapter 7. Konur, O., 2020d. The scientometric analysis of the research on the algal genomics. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 105-125. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00007-3

In recent years, the applications of omics technologies in algae have emerged as a strategic research front. For the optimal development of the research and practice in this field, the stakeholders should have timely and thorough access to the information on the relevant research. Hence, it is timely to carry out the scientometric evaluation of the research in this field to inform the key stakeholders timely and thoroughly about the relevant research. This paper presents the scientometric study of the research in this field using a wide sample of nearly 16,000 papers and shows that the scientometric analysis as an analytical tool has a great potential to gain valuable insights into the evolution of the research in this field as in the case of new emerging technologies, complementing literature

Algae; Cyanobacteria; Diatoms; Dinoflagellates; Genomics; Microalgae; Macroalgae; Omics; Proteomics; Scientometrics

Chapter 8. Arora, N., Jaiswal, D., Sengupta, S., Wangikar, P.P., 2020. Metabolic engineering of cyanobacteria for production of platform chemicals: A synthetic biology approach. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 129-145. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00008-5

In the recent years, solar powered cyanobacteria have emerged as promising cell factories for the production of biofuels, bioplastics and platforms chemicals. This is due to their inherent ability to fix carbon dioxide, fast growth rate, minimal nutrient requirements and relative ease of genetic manipulation. However, significant improvement in productivity will be required before the cyanobacterial cell factories can be commercially deployed. Eventual success will depend on the availability of synthetic biology tools such as well characterized promoters, ribosomal binding sites, terminators and genome editing methods. In the present chapter, we discuss the different synthetic biology-based approaches that have been used to engineer model strains of cyanobacteria. The strain development strategies are expected to be dependent on the desired product and the corresponding precursor from the central carbon pathway. Finally, an outlook on the future developments that could expedite the commercialization of cyanobacteria for renewable biotechnology has been suggested.

Cyanobacteria; Cell factories; Platform chemicals; Genetic engineering; Molecular tools; Promoters; Ribosomal binding sites; Terminators; Yield

Chapter 9. Moreira, C., Martins, J., Vasconcelos, V., Antunes, A., 2020. Genomics perspectives on cyanobacteria research. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 147-159. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00009-7

Cyanobacteria are an ancient and diverse group of microorganisms that are of major ecotoxicological relevance since they produce harmful algal blooms, as well as toxic and natural molecules with distinct effects on human health. In water quality management, several methods can be applied and in these molecular tools through genomics research can serve as early warning techniques in the forecasting of blooms and cyanotoxicity, also allowing the characterization of a given environment or strain. In parallel, they can aid in the genetic biodiscovery of natural compounds directly from the environment or in strain collection serving as a directional tool in chemical compound isolation. In sum, a genomics perspective can unravel genetic biodiversity of cyanobacteria, their toxins and natural products, providing an easy and reliable tool in water quality management practices and finally through next-generation sequencing (NGS) determine the effective community inhabiting a specific environment.

Cyanobacteria; Cyanotoxins; Natural products; PCR; Non-PCR; NGS; Sequencing; Phylogeny; Biogeography; Water quality management

Chapter 10. O’Neill, E., 2020. Using new techniques to study old favourites: a case study of Euglena. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 161-170. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00010-3

Euglenids are highly complex algae, typically found in organic-rich freshwater, where they can be so populous as to give their characteristic color to the water. The unique phylogenetic position and the ease with which Euglena can be cultured has made them one of the most highly studied eukaryotes, playing a pivotal role in the development of cell biology and biochemistry. They are of great biotechnological interest and are able to make large amounts of a wide range of bioactive compounds. Using new techniques to study Euglena has revealed an extremely complex metabolic capacity, including genes for the synthesis of unusual metabolites and natural products. Euglena also expresses a wide range of carbohydrate-active enzymes, suggesting an unexpectedly high capacity for the synthesis of complex carbohydrates for a single-celled organism. By applying modern techniques, developed to study model organisms, we can vastly improve our understanding of more diverse species.

Euglena gracilis; Algae; Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics; Genome mining; Natural products; Glycomics; Glycobiology; Carbohydrates

Chapter 11. Deka, D., Sonowal, S., Chikkaputtaiah, C., Velmurugan, N., 2020. Exploring ‘omics’ approaches: towards understanding the essence of stress phenomena in diatoms and haptophytes. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 171-192. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00011-5

Diatoms and haptophytes are well-known phytoplankton communities that are considered to play a vital role in fixation of large amount of carbon, phosphorus, calcium and silica. They have immense potential to synthesize wide range of biologically and industrially important chemical compounds such as lipids (triacylglycerides (TAG) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)), carbohydrates, and chlorophyll. So far, a variety of ‘omics’ methodologies have been employed for the study and the improvement of diatoms and haptophytes. Innovative stress manipulation techniques in combination with different ‘omics’ approaches have been developed to get new insights into biosynthetic pathways for strain engineering and improvement in diatoms and haptophytes. This chapter describes the significant progress that has been achieved in diatoms and haptophytes using different ‘omics’ methodologies and highlights the importance, advancements, and future prospects of ‘omics’ methodologies that are suitable for the study of diatom and haptophytes.

Diatoms; Haptophytes; Genomics; Proteomics; Transcriptomics; Metabolomics; Lipidomics; Stress biology; Climate regulations; Fatty acids biosynthesis

Part 4. Algal photosystems and photosynthesis

Chapter 12. Konur, O., 2020e. The scientometric analysis of the research on the algal photosystems and phtosythesis. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 195-215. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00012-7

In recent years, the field of algal photosystems and photosynthesis has emerged as a strategic research front. For the optimal development of the research and practice in this field with a low funding rate, the stakeholders should have timely and thorough access to the information on the relevant research. Hence, it is timely to carry out the scientometric evaluation of the research in this field to inform the key stakeholders timely and thoroughly about the relevant research. This paper presents the first-ever scientometric study of the research in this field using a wide sample of over 11,500 papers and shows that the scientometric analysis as an analytical tool has a great potential to gain valuable insights into the evolution of the research in this field as in the case of new emerging technologies, complementing over 600 literature reviews.

Algae; Cyanobacteria; Diatoms; Dinoflagellates; Microalgae; Macroalgae; Photosystems; Photosynthesis; Phytoplankton; Scientometrics

Chapter 13. Goss, R., Wilhelm, C., Jakob, T., 2020. Photosynthesis in diatoms. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 217-229. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00013-9

The photosynthetic apparatus of diatoms shares many features with other oxygen evolving systems in eukaryotic algae. Nevertheless, the photosynthetic machinery in diatoms shows special features, which will be presented in this chapter. On a structural level, the present chapter describes the components of the light harvesting antenna systems, which are very efficient light absorbing units, not only in the blue and red regions of the spectrum, but also in the green part of natural sunlight. On a physiological level, the differences between diatoms and other eukaryotic algae with respect to the regulation of heat dissipation and alternative electron flows are addressed. Beside the special features observed in the photosynthetic light reactions, diatoms exhibit interesting deviations from the green algal lineage with respect to carbon acquisition and the exchange of metabolites between plastid and cytosol. These will be described at the end of the present chapter.

Alternative electron transport; Chrysolaminarin; Calvin cycle; C4-photosynthesis; Diatoms; Fucoxanthin-binding protein (FCP); Nonphotochemical quenching; Photosynthesis; Secondary endobiosis; Xanthophylls cycle

Chapter 14. Konur, O., 2020f. The pioneering research on the cyanobacterial photosystems and photosynthesis. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 231-243. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00014-0

In recent years, the field of algal photosystems and photosynthesis has emerged as a strategic research front corresponding to the public concerns about the development of the sustainable and environment-friendly bioproducts and bioprocesses. The field of cyanobacterial photosystems and photosynthesis has been a special case in this context. This book chapter focuses on the coverage of 33 pioneering studies on the cyanobacterial photosystems and photosynthesis with at least 300 citations each. There have been 11 and 22 papers on the cyanobacterial photosystems and photosynthesis, respectively. It provides the ample data for the primary stakeholders about the contents and research context of these pioneering studies to devise the efficient set of incentive structures for the optimal development of the research and practice in this field with a relatively low funding rate.

Cyanobacteria; Photosynthesis; Photosystems; Light harvesting; PSI; PSII; CO₂ concentrating mechanisms; Cytochrome b₆f complex; Phycobilisomes; Photoacclimation

Chapter 15. Vaz, M.G.M.V., Almeida, A.V.M., de Castro, N.V., Nunes-Nesi, A., Araujo, W.L., 2020. Carbon and nitrogen metabolism in cyanobacteria: basic traits, regulation and biotechnological application. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 245-254. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00015-2

Cyanobacteria constitute a coherent phylogenetically group into Bacteria domain, displaying great morphological, physiological and metabolic diversity. Further to carbon-fixation via oxygenic photosynthesis, certain cyanobacteria also perform biological nitrogen (N) fixation, contributing for key cell metabolic processes. CO2 is the primary carbon (C) source, however sugar and other organic C can also be used by cyanobacteria. Considering N, a variety of sources are metabolized. C and N metabolism must be therefore tightly coupled and precisely regulated. Thus, coordinated control mechanisms involving both metabolisms, avoiding limitation or oversupply, are present in cyanobacteria. Here, we briefly characterize and further discuss the regulatory principles underlying C and N metabolisms, highlighting how cyanobacterial cells sense their sources/concentrations, controlling their transport, assimilation and usage. Furthermore, we highlight how and to which extent the understanding of C/N balance contribute for optimum growth and production of specific compounds with biotechnological application in different cyanobacteria.

Carbon/nitrogen fixation; Cyanobacteria; Metabolic regulation; Nutritional status; NtcA; Photosynthetic organisms; PipX; Signaling; Transport; '2-Oxoglutarate' (2-OG)

Part 5. Algal ecology

Chapter 16. Konur, O., 2020g. The scientometric analysis of the research on the algal ecology. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 257-276. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00016-4

In recent years, the algal ecology have emerged as a strategic research front. For the optimal development of the research and practice in this field with a relatively low funding rate, the stakeholders should have timely and thorough access to the information on the relevant research. Hence, it is timely to carry out the scientometric evaluation of the research in this field to inform the key stakeholders timely and thoroughly about the relevant research. This paper presents the first-ever scientometric study of the research in this field using a wide sample of nearly 65,000 papers and shows that the scientometric analysis as an analytical tool has a great potential to gain valuable insights into the evolution of the research in this field as in the case of new emerging technologies, complementing over 1600 literature reviews.

Algae; Algal ecology; Citation classics; Cyanobacteria; Diatoms; Microalgae; Macroalgae; Phytoplankton; Scientometrics; Zooplankton

Chapter 17. Boudouresque, C.F., Blanfune, A., Ruitton, S., Thibaut, T., 2020. Macroalgae as a tool for coastal management in the Mediterranean Sea. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 277-290. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00017-6

Macroalgae are a key component of benthic coastal ecosystems. They are sensitive to natural and anthropogenic disturbances. In the Mediterranean Sea, macroalgae can be used by environmental managers (i) to delineate biogeographic provinces (on the basis of their range), (ii) as indicators of global warming (based on changes in their distribution area), (iii) as multispecies biological indicators of water quality (e.g., the EEI and CARLIT indices), and (iv) as indicators of the functioning of ecosystems (e.g., the primary producer compartments of ecosystem-based quality indices—EBQIs). In addition, the management of outstanding species of macroalgae requires the extensive monitoring of their range and abundance, with the aim of early detection of local and functional extinctions. Overall, macroalgae constitute powerful management aid tools. However, the managers' poor knowledge of taxonomy may hinder their use and bias the results; the training of managers in basic taxonomy is therefore a priority.

Biological indicators; CARLIT index; EEI index; EBQI; Macroalgae; Management; Mediterranean Sea; Monitoring; Threatened species; Warming

Chapter 18. Dalu, T., Lemley, D.A., Snow, G.C., Wu, N.C., 2020. Linking phytoplankton community structure to aquatic ecosystem functioning: a mini-review of the current status and future directions. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 291-302. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00018-8

Globally, approximately 65% of aquatic ecosystems (i.e., freshwater, estuaries, marine) are considered threatened to some extent. Pressures on these fragile ecosystems are on the rise due to the demands for emanating from global human population increases. This chapter focuses on phytoplankton mostly diatoms and flagellates in environmental monitoring programs. It examines the different stressor-response relationships and phytoplankton traits using specific examples from the field. Using the obtained information, we created a pressure-stressor-response matrix relationship for phytoplankton use in biomonitoring. Thus, if the thresholds of potential concern (or there is sufficient weight of evidence) have been identified as being exceeded during monitoring, management options need to be identified to bring the ecosystem back to its original state. These ecological interpretations could prove particularly valuable as water management decisions, due to the potential impact of changes in microphytobenthos quantity and quality on the food web could be significant.

Anthropogenic; Biomonitoring; Diatoms; Flagellates; Water quality; Stressor-response relationships; Functional traits; Harmful algal blooms; Phytoplankton

Chapter 19. Znad, H., 2020. Microalgae culture technology for carbon dioxide biomitigation. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 303-316. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00019-X

Global warming induced by a rapid increase of carbon dioxide emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere is one of the major global challenges. There is thus some merit in establishing an efficient, cost effective and sustainable technology for carbon dioxide fixation. In this chapter the recent literature related to the application of ‘microalgae culture technology’ (MCT) for carbon dioxide biomitigation from flue gases has been discussed with reference to photosynthesis process principles and carbon dioxide sequestration strategies. The influence of the key system parameters on the algal photobioreactor (PBR) performance has been appraised with reference to photobioreactor (PBR) configuration, and general process operating conditions. Factors such as light intensity and distribution, temperature, carbon dioxide mass transfer and nutrient balancing have been discussed. The chapter also reports carbon dioxide fixation rates of several microalgae species under different input carbon dioxide concentrations and light intensities.

Carbon dioxide; Microalgae; Biofixation; Photobioreactor; Sequestration strategies; Biomitigation; Global warming; ‘Microalgae culture technology’; Flue gases; Photosynthesis

Part 6. Algal bioenergy and biofuels

Chapter 20. Konur, O., 2020h. The scientometric analysis of the research on the algal bioenergy and biofuels. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 319-341. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00020-6

In recent years, the algal bioenergy and biofuels have emerged as a viable alternative to petrofuels as well as the bioenergy and biofuels from crop oils and wastes. For the optimal development of the research and practice in this field, the stakeholders should have timely and thorough access to the information on the relevant research. Hence, it is timely to update Konur (2011) on the scientometric evaluation of the research in this field to inform the key stakeholders timely and thoroughly about the relevant research. This paper presents the scientometric study of the research in this field using a wide sample of nearly 12,500 papers and shows that the scientometric analysis as an analytical tool has a great potential to gain valuable insights into the evolution of the research in this field as in the case of new emerging technologies, complementing literature reviews.

Algae; Biomass; Cyanobacteria; Diatoms; Dinoflagellates; Bioenergy; Biofuels; Microalgae; Macroalgae; Scientometrics

Chapter 21. Markou, G. 2020. Overview of microalgal cultivation, biomass processing and application. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 343-352. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00021-8

Microalgae are photosynthetic aquatic microorganisms that fix CO₂ and other inorganic elements into organic matter. In general terms, microalgae are considered as a very interesting source of biomass because of their great diversity on biochemical and physiological properties and their convenient agronomical characteristics, like high biomass yield, fast grow, year-round harvesting capability, independence from arable land or irrigation-quality water. However, there are some important bottlenecks on the large-scale cultivation of microalgae and specific challenges exist. Currently there is a vast research activity trying to address these bottlenecks. The most challenging and critical points are related to the low biomass concentration on the cultivation medium, high energy consumption and costs for fertilization, agitation, harvesting and drying of biomass. This chapter aims to give an introductory overview on microalgal biomass production highlighting the potentials and limitations of microalgal cultivation, biomass production, biomass processing and application.

Microalgae; Biomass; Bioproducts; Cultivation systems; Harvesting; Downstream processing; Photobioreactors; Open ponds; Production economics; Cell disruption

Chapter 22. Makareviciene, V., Sendzikiene, E., 2020. Application of microalgae for the production of biodiesel fuel. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 353-365. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00022-X

The chapter explores the options of using microalgal oil for biodiesel fuel synthesis. The general knowledge about the chemical processes taking place during the transesterification of lipids and the acylation agents and catalysts used in these processes is provided. The overview of the conditions of homogeneous (acid and alkaline) catalysis and the efficiency of these processes when they are applied in the transesterification of microalgal oil is presented. The options that use various heterogeneous catalysts by focusing on the processes of enzymatic catalysis are analyzed. Efficiency of lipases in catalyzing the reactions of transesterification of microalgal oil with methanol and ethanol and on ways to increase process efficiency is described. Options of application of supercritical non-catalytic method for biodiesel fuel synthesis for microalgal oil are analyzed. Physical and chemical properties of biodiesel fuel produced form microalgal oil are discussed.

Transesterification; Acid catalysis; Alkaline catalysis; Biodiesel; Microalgal oils; Enzymatic catalysis; Heterogeneous catalysis; Lipases; Triglyceride

Chapter 23. Faraloni, C., Torzillo, G., 2020. Microalgal hydrogen production in the framework of bioeconomy. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 367-375. Elsevier, Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00023-1

The current need for alternative source of green energy have brought the interest on the biological hydrogen production. Molecular H2 can be produced by different biological processes based on the utilization of light energy, carried out by some photosynthetic microorganisms, like microalgae, able to switch their metabolism from oxygenic photosynthesis to H2 evolution. Interestingly, microalgae, as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, are able to utilize their internal substrate, as carbohydrates and proteins, to drive the H2 production process. They also possess the capability to utilize external source of organic compounds present in wastewaters, both for their growth and as substrate for H2 production, as C. reinhardtii and Chlorella. In this respect, the microalgal H2 production can be considered a very current topic well fitting in the frame of the concept of a bioeconomy, considering both the renewable energy production idea and recovery of waste material to be converted into fuel.

Bioenergy; Biohydrogen; Chlamydomonas; Genomic engineering; Hydrogen production; Microalgae; Photosynthesis; Photosystem II; Solar energy; Wastewaters

Chapter 24. Saba, B., Christy, A.D., 2020. Bioelectricity generation in algal microbial fuel cells. In; Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 377-384. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00024-3

Photosynthetic microbial fuel cells (PMFCs) are an efficient and sustainable approach to simultaneously generate bioelectricity, treat wastewaters and produce value added compounds. In PMFCs, algae can act as a biocatholyte by accepting electrons and producing oxygen during photosynthesis. Dissolved oxygen in the catholyte combines with protons crossing from the anode chamber through the membrane and electrons traveling from the anode electrode through an external electrical resistance to complete the circuit and as a byproduct, to generate water. The algae can be grown in nutrient rich wastewater, providing an inexpensive substrate. Algal biomass can be used to produce value added products like biofuels, pharmaceuticals, antioxidants and nutraceutical products. In single chamber PMFCs, both algae and the bacteria grow together in a synergistic relationship treating wastewater while simultaneously generating bioelectricity. This chapter describes how algae can play different roles in microbial fuel cells to generate bioelectricity.

Algae; Bioelectricity; Wastewater treatment; Biomass; Microbial fuel cells; Selectively permeable membrane; Oxidation-reduction reaction; Substrate; Biofuels; Wastewaters

Chapter 25. Konur, O., 2020i. The scientometric analysis of the research on the bioethanol production from green macroalgae. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 385-401. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00025-5

In recent years, the field of algal bioenergy and biofuels has emerged as a strategic research front corresponding to the public concerns about the development of the sustainable and environment-friendly bioproducts and bioprocesses. The field of bioethanol production from green macroalgae has been a special case in this context. This book chapter focuses on the coverage of 46 pioneering studies on the bioethanol production from green macroalgae with at least 300 citations each. There have been 13, 10, 10, and 13 papers on the pretreatments, acid hydrolysis, enzymatic hydrolysis, and fermentation of green macroalgae, respectively. It provides the ample data for the primary stakeholders about the contents and research context of these pioneering studies to devise the efficient set of incentive structures for the optimal development of the research and practice in this field with a relatively low funding rate.

Green macroalgae; Bioethanol; Pretreatments; Acid hydrolysis; Enzymatic hydrolysis; Fermentation; Ulva; Saccharomyces cerevisiae; Pioneering research

Part 7. Algal biomedicine

Chapter 26. Konur, O., 2020j. The scientometric analysis of the research on the algal biomedicine. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 405-427. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00026-7

In recent years, the algal biomedicine has emerged as a strategic research front. For the optimal development of the research and practice in this field with a relatively low funding rate, the stakeholders should have timely and thorough access to the information on the relevant research. Hence, it is timely to carry out the scientometric evaluation of the research in this field to inform the key stakeholders timely and thoroughly about the relevant research. This paper presents the first-ever scientometric study of the research in this field using a wide sample of over 30,000 papers and shows that the scientometric analysis as an analytical tool has a great potential to gain valuable insights into the evolution of the research in this field as in the case of new emerging technologies, complementing nearly 800 literature reviews.

Algae; Alginates; Biodrugs; Biomedicine; Cyanobacteria; Diatoms; Dinoflagellates; Microalgae; Macroalgae; Scientometrics

Chapter 27. Costa, J.A.V., Moreira, J.B., Fanka, L.S., da Costa Kosinski, R, de Morais, M.G., 2020. Microalgal biotechnology applied in biomedicine. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 429-439. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00027-9

Microalgae are photosynthetic organisms, prokaryotes or eukaryotes, responsible for the greater part of the production of atmospheric oxygen. The biomass of these microorganisms presents diverse applicability due to their composition, which can be rich in carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, pigments, and phenolic compounds. The variability of the cultivation conditions in which the microalgae can be submitted promotes differences in its biochemical composition, and its use can be destined for several applications. The microalgal biomass can be applied in the biomedicine field, due to its beneficial health properties as its nutraceutical, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and anti-tumor potential. Moreover, promising effects have been found in treatments for suppression of blood hypertension, protection against renal failure, and attenuation of blood glucose values. In this context, this chapter addresses the bioactive compound constituents in microalgae, as well as their characteristics and applications in the biomedical field, elucidating recent studies and future perspectives.

Bioactive compounds; Biochemical composition; Biomedical field; Chlorella; Cultivation conditions; Health benefits; Microalgal biomass; Nutraceutical properties; Spirulina; Well-being

Chapter 28. Nowruzi, B., Sarvar, G., Blanco, S., 2020. Applications of cyanobacteria in biomedicine. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 441-453. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00028-0

Cyanobacteria, an abundant source of natural products as biomedical compounds have emerged as a novel resource for the progression of synthetic analogs. Due to the rise of antibiotic resistance, there is a need for new medications and cyanobacteria-derived compounds with promising antimicrobial, immunosuppressant, anti-carcinoma, antiviral and protease inhibition activity are a potent option for new therapeutics. Current research is focused on the exploitation of cyanobacteria for the production of bioactive metabolites. Screening of cyanobacteria for pharmaceutically active compounds has received increasing attention; overall, there is a promising outlook that cyanobacterial secondary metabolites will become alternatives for the development of new and more effective medications.

Cyanobacteria; Natural products; Biomedical compounds; Antibiotic; Drug discovery; Antibiotic resistanc; Polyketide synthase (PKS); Non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS); Bioactive metabolites; Synthetic analogs

Chapter 29. Qin, Y.M., 2020. Health benefits of bioactive seaweed substances. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 455-466. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00029-2

Seaweed derived bioactive substances can exert a wide range of nutritional and medicinal activities when used in functional foods, nutraceuticals, drugs, cosmetics, biomedical materials and other health products. As natural products from the sea, red, brown and green seaweeds contain a large variety of bioactive compounds that have biological activities such as cancer prevention, blood pressure reduction, antioxidant, slimming, etc., which are closely associated with the properties required for many health related products. This chapter reviews the current knowledge on the health benefits of seaweeds derived bioactive substances. It is hoped that these novel properties can be incorporated into functional health products to benefit human health.

Bioactivities; Natural products; Functional health products; Health benefits; Nutrition; Seaweeds; Macroalgae; Biomedicine; Bioactive compounds

Chapter 30. Konur, O., 2020k. The pioneering research on the wound care by alginates. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 467-481. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00030-9

In recent years, the field of algal biomedicine has emerged as a strategic research front corresponding to the public concerns about the sustainable health care of the aging global population. The application of alginates in drug delivery, tissue engineering, cell engineering, and wound care has been a special case in this context. This book chapter focuses on the coverage of 42 pioneering studies on the applications of alginates in the wound care with at least 45 citations each. There have been 18, 11, and 13 papers on the wound care by alginates only, alginates and chitosan, and alginates and other biomaterials, respectively. It provides the ample data for the primary stakeholders about the contents and research context of these pioneering studies to devise the efficient set of incentive structures for the optimal development of the research and practice in this field with a relatively low funding rate.

Alginates; Wound care; Wound dressings; Pressure ulcers; Foot ulcers; Leg ulcers; Diabetic ulcers; Burns; Skin wounds; Biomedicine

Part 8. Algal foods

Chapter 31. Konur, O., 2020l. The scientometric analysis of the research on the algal foods. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 485-606. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00031-0

In recent years, the algal foods have emerged as a strategic research front. For the optimal development of the research and practice in this field with a relatively low funding rate, the stakeholders should have timely and thorough access to the information on the relevant research. Hence, it is timely to carry out the scientometric evaluation of the research in this field to inform the key stakeholders timely and thoroughly about the relevant research. This paper presents the first-ever scientometric study of the research in this field using a wide sample of nearly 15,000 papers and shows that the scientometric analysis as an analytical tool has a great potential to gain valuable insights into the evolution of the research in this field as in the case of new emerging technologies, complementing over 550 literature reviews.

Algae; Cyanobacteria; Cyanovirins; Diatoms; Dinoflagellates; Foods; Fucoidans; Microalgae; Macroalgae; Scientometrics

Chapter 32. Colla, E., Lupatini Menegotto, A.L., Kalschne, D.L., da Silva-Buzanello, R.A., Canan, C., Drunkler, D.A., 2020. Microalgae: a new and promising source of food. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 507-518. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00032-2

The need to develop new sources of foods is growing, especially due to malnutrition in underdeveloped and developing countries. Also, the growth of the world’s population has led to the exploration of alternative food sources that can maintain food security. The high protein content of several macro and microalgal species would make them a great component of different foods, increasing their nutritional value. Parallel studies have shown that microalgae consumption may bring additional health benefits due to their variety of active biological compounds that are not found in other organisms. Considering this evidence and the potential commodity-scale production of algae, we aimed to conduct a survey of the biochemical, biological, and functional properties of different microalgae and to explore their techno-functional characteristics that can improve food processing, including their protein solubility, foaming, emulsifying, and gelling properties.

Food ingredient; Health benefits; High-value compounds; Human nutrition; Microalgal supplementation; Nutraceuticals; Nutritional quality; Pigments; Protein insufficiency; Techno-functional properties

Part 9. Algal toxicology

Chapter 33. Konur, O., 2020m. The scientometric analysis of the research on the algal toxicology. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 521-541. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00033-4

In recent years, the algae have gained an increasing public importance for the benefit of the global society in many areas including biomedicine and bioenergy and biofuels in an environment-friendly way. Within this context, algal toxicology has emerged as an important research field. However, for the optimal development of the research and practice in this field, the stakeholders should have timely access to the information on the relevant research. There has been no study on the scientometric evaluation of the research in this field as a whole to inform the key stakeholders about the relevant research. This paper presents the first-ever scientometric study of the research in this field and shows that the scientometric analysis as an analytical tool has a great potential to gain valuable insights into the evolution of the research in this field as in the case of new emerging technologies, complementing literature reviews.

Algae; Cyanobacteria; Cyanotoxins; Diatoms; Dinoflagellates; Harmful algal blooms; Microcystins; Okadaic acid; Scientometrics; Toxicology

Chapter 34. Matsuyama, Y., Oda. T., 2020. Toxic effects of harmful algal blooms on finfish and shellfish. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 543-560. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00034-6

The impacts of ‘harmful algal bloom’ (HAB) species on finfish and shellfish aquaculture were reviewed by specific studies available in historical literatures. The number of harmful algal species and blooms have increased globally over the past several decades and their impacts on aquatic organisms are profound. This chapter provides an updated account of HAB species, and several aquatic organisms affected by toxic species are highlighted because of their economic importance in mariculture.

Algae; Aquaculture; Dinoflagellates; Finfish; Harmful algal blooms; Red tides; Shellfish; Toxicology

Chapter 35. Souza, N.R., Metcalf, J.S., 2020. Cyanobacterial toxins and their effects on human and animal health. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 561-574. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00035-8

Cyanobacteria, cosmopolitan photosynthetic organisms in marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments are capable of causing a wide range of adverse health effects through the production of a variety of low molecular weight toxins. Via a range of exposure routes, intoxications can occur, which in severe cases has led to hospitalization and death. The modes of action of cyanobacterial toxins are varied, with hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity and dermatological issues reported. Toxicity events can be acute, although increasingly the associations from exposure to cyanobacteria and chronic human diseases are being elucidated. Poisoning incidents have aided in developing a wide range of bioassays to detect and quantify cyanobacterial toxins. Furthermore, using such bioassays has helped in understanding the biological processing of some cyanobacterial toxins. Ultimately, determining the toxicity of cyanobacterial blooms can help protect human and animal health, in addition to identifying new and emerging compounds of public health concern produced by cyanobacteria.

Cyanobacteria; Toxin; Risk assessment; Health effects; Acute toxicity; Chronic toxicity; Poisoning incidents; Prevention; Remediation

Chapter 36. Noguchi, T., Arakawa, O., Daigo, K., Oikawa, H., Asakawa, M., Miyazawa, K., 2020. Different intoxication mechanism between paralytic shellfish toxin (PST)- and/or tetrodotoxin-contaminated xanthid crabs and PST-contaminated edible shore crabs in Japan and their food poisonings. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 575-589. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00036-X

The intoxication mechanism of xanthid crabs and edible shore crabs in Japan by ‘paralytic shellfish toxin’ (PST) and/or ‘tetrodotoxin’ (TTX) was investigated. Three xanthid crabs were toxic and their toxin consisted of PST and/or TTX. Since great individual and regional variation in toxicity of each specimen, and toxin variety with exposure of toxic crab to each toxin were confirmed, their intoxication mechanism was suggested to be a food chain feeding toxic plankton. However, as they are omnivorous, the conclusion remains uncertain. Two edible shore crabs including Telmessus acutidents were contaminated with PST around 2003, in the Tohoku district of Japan. The intoxication mechanism of the crab was experimentally shown to be through the food chain by feeding on bivalves infested with PST-producing Alexandrium sp. Many food poisoning cases due to ingestion of xanthid crabs have occurred so far, but there are no reports in the case of this shore crab.

Paralytic shellfish toxin; Saxitoxin; Gonyautoxin; Tetrodotoxin; Zosimus aeneus; Atergatis floridus; Telmessus acutidents; Charybdis japonica; Alexandrium; Toxin resistibility

Chapter 37. Esterhuizen-Londt, M., Pflugmacher, S., 2020. Microcystins as environmental and human health hazards. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 591-604. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00037-1

The incidence of cyanobacterial blooms is increasing due to numerous factors, especially anthropogenic influences such as eutrophication and global warming. As cyanobacteria produce toxins that are hazardous to several organisms, the ecosystem, and also humans, there is a need to accrue and evaluate the current data to assess the risk posed to us and our environment. By understanding how and why these toxins are produced, we can attempt to eliminate the threat by either managing toxin production or to eradicate these hazards from surface waters and thus limiting exposure. This chapter specifically addresses the most commonly occurring group of cyanobacterial toxins, the microcystins. We discuss the adverse implication for the environment and the human exposure risk. We conclude the chapter by discussing possible countermeasures, focusing on the phytoremediation method called the Green Liver System.

Microcystin; Microcystin-LR; Cyanobacteria; Toxicity; Exposure risk; Human health risk; Ecological consequences; Countermeasures; Green Liver System

Part 10. Algal bioremediation

Chapter 38. Konur, O., 2020n. The scientometric analysis of the research on the algal bioremediation. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 607-627. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00038-3

In recent years, the algal bioremediation have emerged as a strategic research front. For the optimal development of the research and practice in this field with a relatively low funding rate, the stakeholders should have timely and thorough access to the information on the relevant research. Hence, it is timely to carry out the scientometric evaluation of the research in this field to inform the key stakeholders timely and thoroughly about the relevant research. This paper presents the first-ever scientometric study of the research in this field using a wide sample of nearly 6700 papers and shows that the scientometric analysis as an analytical tool has a great potential to gain valuable insights into the evolution of the research in this field as in the case of new emerging technologies, complementing over 181 literature reviews.

Algae; Algal bioremediation; CO₂ Citation classics; Cyanobacteria; Bioremediation; Microalgae; Macroalgae; Scientometrics; Wastewaters

Chapter 39. Cepoi, L., Zinicovscaia, I., 2020. Spirulina platensis as a model object for the environment bioremediation studies. In: Konur, O. (Ed.) Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 629-640. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00039-5

Spirulina platensis is an intensely studied biological object due to its valuable biotechnological qualities. Spirulina biomass is used for direct human and animal consumption as well as raw material for production of drugs and food supplements. Therefore, its use for environment remediation is unjustified. Instead, this cyanobacteria is a very suitable object to reveal the mechanisms of biosorption and bioaccumulation of metals and other pollutants. The chapter presents summarized data about the biosorption and bioaccumulation capacity of Spirulina for metal ions, including radioactive forms. The mechanisms of detoxification of persistent organic pollutants by Spirulina are underlined. Accumulated data can serve as a basis for the elaboration of bioremediation procedures based on the use of filamentous cyanobacteria or other types of cyanobacteria and microalgae.

Bioremediation; Biosorption; Bioaccumulation; Biodegradation; Cyanobacteria; Detoxification; Heavy metals; Organic pollutants; Spirulina platensis; Wastewater treatment

Chapter 40. Alcantara, C., Acien-Fernandez, F.G., Fernandez-Sevilla, J.M., Riano, B., Hernandez, D., Garcia-Gonzalez, M.C., Larran, A., Tomas, C., Blanco, S., Becares, E., Ortiz, S., Irusta, R., Garcia-Encina, P., Bolado, S., Munoz, R., 2020. Exploring the potential of microalgae for the bioremediation of agro-industrial wastewaters. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 641-658. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00040-1

Today, agro-industry is a key economic sector worldwide with a large associated generation of wastewaters. These wastewaters entail a hazard to the environment and a waste of valuable organic matter and nutrients. The use of microalgae to support an efficient and low cost treatment of agro-industrial wastewaters along with a sustainable resource recovery has attracted an increasing attention over the past decades. This book chapter will critically discuss the fundamentals of algal-bacterial symbiosis and photobioreactor design in the context of wastewater treatment. The current challenges in microalgae harvesting and biomass valorization in the form of feedstock for the production of biofertilizers, fish feed, and biogas will be also presented along with a critical evaluation of the sustainability of the process. Finally, the future trends in the field of photosynthetic treatment of agro-industrial wastewater will be outlined.

Agro-industrial wastewater treatment; Algal-bacterial symbiosis; Harvesting; High added value products; LCA; Photobioreactors; Resource recovery; Sustainability; Microalgae; Bioremediation

Chapter 41. Zohoorian, H., Ahmadzadeh, H., Molazadeh, M., Shourian, M., Lyon S., 2020. Microalgal bioremediation of heavy metals and dyes. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 659-674. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00041-3

The textile and dye industries produce waste streams with considerable concentrations of heavy metals and complex organic compounds. There are a number of conventional approaches for the removal of these pollutants but they require a significant amount of capital investment and energy. Some of these treatment processes include coagulation/flocculation/precipitation, reverse osmosis, electro-dialysis and ultrafiltration. Most of these processes reduce the contaminant load to environmentally safe levels but in most cases they produce a large volume of low-density toxic sludge. Alternative bioremediation-based treatment systems have slowly been gaining acceptance in the industrial effluent treatment industry in recent years. Natural organisms are used to break down hazardous substances into less toxic or non-toxic substances. This chapter describes the role of conventional treatment processes and the use of microalgae in the breakdown of complex organic compounds and the concentration and removal of heavy metals from the effluent of the textile and dye industries.

Bioremediation; Dyes; Heavy metals; Microalgae; Nutrient recovery; Pollutants; Public health; Textile wastewaters; Wastewater treatment; Wet processing

Chapter 42. Sastre de Vicente, M.E., Rodriguez-Barro, P., Herrero, R., Vilarino, T., Lodeiro, P., Barriada, J.L., 2020. Biosorption of chemical species by Sargassum algal biomass: equilibrium data, part I. In: Konur, O., (Ed.), Handbook of Algal Science, Technology and Medicine, 675-696. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818305-2.00042-5

The analysis of more than 400 papers found in the literature on Sargassum biosorption has shown the existence of more than 700 equilibrium entries corresponding to data at different temperature and pH conditions. The following ten single metals: Cd, Co, Cr(III, VI), Cu, Fe, Hg, La, Ni, Pb, and Zn, are the main focus of most of the equilibrium data (507) in more than half of the studied references. The studies reflecting the interaction of nine of these metals with Sargassum sp. is described and analyzed. The use of Langmuir equation, the effect of temperature and pH on sorption is critically reviewed. In addition, we also analyze all the data available on elemental chemical composition of native Sargassum. These data reflect the interaction of this kind of marine biomass with nine of the metals mentioned above, which are present in seawater worldwide.

Sargassum; Sorption; Inorganic pollutants; Langmuir isotherm; Chemical composition; Bioremediation; Macroalgae; Biosorption; Heavy metals